Kushner, Inc.: Greed. Ambition. Corruption. The Extraordinary Story of Jared Kushner and Ivanka Trump Hardcover – March 19, 2019
by Vicky Ward (Author)
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在時報專欄作家看來，從特朗普本人到伊万卡和庫什納，都算得上是“鄧寧-克魯格效應”的典型例子。這是一種認知偏差現象，能力越低的人，越容易對自己產生過高的評價。
In the field of psychology, the Dunning–Kruger effect is a cognitive bias in which people of low ability have illusory superiority and mistakenly assess their cognitive ability as greater than it is. The cognitive bias of illusory superiority comes from the inability of low-ability people to recognize their lack of ability. Without the self-awareness of metacognition, low-ability people cannot objectively evaluate their competence or incompetence.[1]
As described by social psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger, the cognitive bias of illusory superiority results from an internal illusion in people of low ability and from an external misperception in people of high ability; that is, "the miscalibration of the incompetent stems from an error about the self, whereas the miscalibration of the highly competent stems from an error about others."[1]
Historical antecedents[edit]
Although the Dunning–Kruger effect was formulated in 1999, the cognitive bias of illusory superiority has been known throughout history and identified by intellectuals. A sampling of their comments includes:
- Confucius (551–479 BC), who said, "Real knowledge is to know the extent of one's ignorance".[5]
- The philosopher Socrates (470–399 BC), who interpreted a prophecy from the Delphic oracle, said that he was wise despite feeling that he did not fully understand anything, as the wisdom of being aware that he knew nothing.
- Playwright William Shakespeare (1564–1616), who said, "The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool" (As You Like It, V. i.)[23]
- The poet Alexander Pope (1688–1744), who wrote in An Essay on Criticism, 1709: "A little learning is a dangerous thing"
- Henry Fielding (1707–1754), who, in the novel The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, wrote: "For men of true learning, and almost universal knowledge, always compassionate [pity] the ignorance of others; but fellows who excel in some little, low, contemptible art, are always certain to despise those who are unacquainted with that art."
- The naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), who said, "Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge"[1]
- Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), who wrote in Human, All Too Human (aphorism 483), "The Enemies of Truth. — Convictions are more dangerous enemies of truth than lies."[24]
- W. B. Yeats (1865–1939), who, in the poem The Second Coming, said: "The best lack all conviction, while the worst / Are full of passionate intensity."[13]
- The philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), who said, "One of the painful things about our time is that those who feel certainty are stupid, and those with any imagination and understanding are filled with doubt and indecision."[13]
google translate
歷史前因 (前例(
儘管Dunning-Kruger效應是在1999年制定的，但虛幻優越性的認知偏差在歷史上是眾所周知的並且由知識分子確定。他們的評論樣本包括：
孔子（公元前551-479），他說，“真正的知識就是知道一個人的無知程度”。[5] (知之為知是知也？)
哲學家蘇格拉底（公元前470-399）從Delphic神諭中解釋了一個預言，他說，儘管他覺得自己並不完全理解任何東西，但他是明智的，因為他知道自己什麼都不知道。
劇作家威廉·莎士比亞（1564-1616）曾說過，“傻瓜認為他是聰明人，但聰明人知道自己是個傻子”（你喜歡它，V。我。）[23] (如願)
詩人亞歷山大·波普（1688-1744）在“論批評論文”中寫道：1709：“一點點學習是危險的事情”
亨利菲爾丁（1707-1754），在小說“湯姆瓊斯的歷史”中寫道：“對於真正學習和幾乎普遍知識的人來說，總是富有同情心（憐憫）他人的無知;但是那些擅長的人在一些小的，低級的，可鄙的藝術中，總是肯定會鄙視那些不熟悉那種藝術的人。“
博物學家查爾斯·達爾文（Charles Darwin，1809-1882）曾說過，“無知更多地引起信心而不是知識”[1]
哲學家弗里德里希·尼采（1844-1900），在“人類，所有太人”（格言483）中寫道，“真理的敵人。 - 定罪(是真理比謊言更危險的敵人。”[24] 確定是敵人的敵人，比謊言更危險。
W. B. Yeats（1865-1939），在詩歌“再來”中說：“最好的缺乏所有的信念，而最壞的/充滿激情的強度。”[13]
哲學家和數學家Bertrand Russell（1872-1970）曾說過，“我們這個時代最痛苦的事情之一就是那些感到確定的人是愚蠢的，那些有任何想像和理解的人都充滿懷疑和猶豫不決。”[13 ]
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