THE THEORY THAT WOULD NOT DIE
How Bayes’ Rule Cracked the Enigma Code, Hunted Down Russian Submarines and Emerged Triumphant From Two Centuries of Controversy
By Sharon Bertsch McGrayne
320 pp. Yale University Press. $27.50.
「華人戴明學院」是戴明哲學的學習共同體 ,致力於淵博型智識系統的研究、推廣和運用。 The purpose of this blog is to advance the ideas and ideals of W. Edwards Deming.
英文勇氣為courage,更是重要。所以戴名博士在倫敦喝到牌子為Courage 的啤酒,不禁說笑話,參考《戴明修煉 II》。
其實該啤酒公司的創始人之姓為 Courage
Courage & Co Ltd was started by John Courage at the Anchor Brewhouse in Horsleydown, Bermondsey in 1787.
Industry | Alcoholic beverage |
---|---|
Founded | 1787 |
Founder(s) | John Courage |
Products | Beer |
Owner(s) | Wells & Youngs |
There's nothing like an unexpected meeting in an airport terminal and a quick exchange of business cards to change an industry.
Evidently, that's what happened when Ford's CEO, Alan Mulally, had a chance meeting with Toyota CEO, Akio Toyoda, in an unspecified airport as they were both on their way someplace else.
The outcome is a Memorandum of Understanding for the first joint venture the companies have ever pursued with each other. And it's on two fronts.
If the deal goes through (which will happen in 2012), the companies will co-develop a hybrid system for larger, rear-wheel drive vehicles. Like trucks and SUVs.
This is a good thing for both companies as the Obama Administration has upped the fuel efficiency requirements - and that had both companies trying to figure out how to solve the problem by the 2017 model year deadline. It's also expected to substantially reduce the purchase price of the vehicles.
It's also a nice fit for the companies as they both have successful track records with their existing hybrids - Ford with the Fusion and Toyota with the Prius.
On a secondary front, they've also agreed to collaborate on the development of industry-wide standards for the so-called "telematics" - the systems that enable drivers to track emails, make phone calls and participate in social networks while driving. According to initial reports, these are expected to be cloud-based services.
While this is the first actual venture between the two companies, in many ways this 'partnership' was years in the making. After all, it was a result of the 1980 NBC Whitepaper entitled, "If Japan Can, Why Can't We?" that led then Ford CEO, Donald Petersen, to bring quality/management expert Dr. W. Edwards Deming into Ford to teach them what the Japanese automobile makers - most notably Toyota - had learned from him years before.
這系列之文是是記與朋友的一些交往。
這幾天,慧玲報告Mike 的狀況;Ken 來訪,我們其實談過許多主題,少數如賴世和英譯/研究圓仁的《入唐求法[巡禮記》想成blog。
最近似乎決定不出版《領導與學習》。我最覺得對不起的是高雄的好友,他還用認購20本來鼓勵我。另外下不了來的是,Joyce Orsini 教授的序文早就送到。所以現在還在努力…..
今午林公來電,也談了許多事,就順便記在這兒。
林公說我有沒興趣取得品質學會的個人獎?這實在是很尷尬的問題:因為它要給的「他」(即,我) ,應該是1982-85年的我才對。我建議林公,務必把各種獎,送到得講者可以有激勵作用的年青的業者手中。我跟他說ASQ 的榮譽會員才是世界肯定 (昔日Kondo/ Kano 等教授得此,在日本都辦慶祝會) 。而日本的戴明個人獎60年和「日經品質文獻賞」更日本的寶庫。
也許10年前,學會關秘書長說學會要推我去選「國家品質獎」,我都覺得或許晚了10年。哈哈。推掉的藉口是王晃三等等都沒取得,我那敢躐等?
我與林公談的真正重點是,中華民國的品質學會比中國的任一同業都早20年起步,如今比不上什麼北京的、上海、福建、廣州的學會 (網路上的實力對比,真是另一笑話!)。這充分反映台灣的空洞化以及組織人才的凋零。哀哉,吾輩心死矣。
Sharon Bertsch McGrayne traces the controversial history of Bayes's theorem and its contemporary practical applications.
Sharon Bertsch McGrayne introduces Bayes’s theorem in her new book with a remark by John Maynard Keynes: “When the facts change, I change my opinion. What do you do, sir?”
THE THEORY THAT WOULD NOT DIE
How Bayes’ Rule Cracked the Enigma Code, Hunted Down Russian Submarines and Emerged Triumphant From Two Centuries of Controversy
By Sharon Bertsch McGrayne
320 pp. Yale University Press. $27.50.
Bayes’s theorem, named after the 18th-century Presbyterian minister Thomas Bayes, addresses this selfsame essential task: How should we modify our beliefs in the light of additional information? Do we cling to old assumptions long after they’ve become untenable, or abandon them too readily at the first whisper of doubt? Bayesian reasoning promises to bring our views gradually into line with reality and so has become an invaluable tool for scientists of all sorts and, indeed, for anyone who wants, putting it grandiloquently, to sync up with the universe. If you are not thinking like a Bayesian, perhaps you should be.
At its core, Bayes’s theorem depends upon an ingenious turnabout: If you want to assess the strength of your hypothesis given the evidence, you must also assess the strength of the evidence given your hypothesis. In the face of uncertainty, a Bayesian asks three questions: How confident am I in the truth of my initial belief? On the assumption that my original belief is true, how confident am I that the new evidence is accurate? And whether or not my original belief is true, how confident am I that the new evidence is accurate? One proto-Bayesian, David Hume, underlined the importance of considering evidentiary probability properly when he questioned the authority of religious hearsay: one shouldn’t trust the supposed evidence for a miracle, he argued, unless it would be even more miraculous if the report were untrue.
The theorem has a long and surprisingly convoluted history, and McGrayne chronicles it in detail. It was Bayes’s friend Richard Price, an amateur mathematician, who developed Bayes’s ideas and probably deserves the glory that would have resulted from a Bayes-Price theorem. After Price, however, Bayes’s theorem lapsed into obscurity until the illustrious French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace extended and applied it in clever, nontrivial ways in the early 19th century. Thereafter it went in and out of fashion, was applied in one field after another only to be later condemned for being vague, subjective or unscientific, and became a bone of contention between rival camps of mathematicians before enjoying a revival in recent years.
The theorem itself can be stated simply. Beginning with a provisional hypothesis about the world (there are, of course, no other kinds), we assign to it an initial probability called the prior probability or simply the prior. After actively collecting or happening upon some potentially relevant evidence, we use Bayes’s theorem to recalculate the probability of the hypothesis in light of the new evidence. This revised probability is called the posterior probability or simply the posterior. Specifically Bayes’s theorem states (trumpets sound here) that the posterior probability of a hypothesis is equal to the product of (a) the prior probability of the hypothesis and (b) the conditional probability of the evidence given the hypothesis, divided by (c) the probability of the new evidence.
Consider a concrete example. Assume that you’re presented with three coins, two of them fair and the other a counterfeit that always lands heads. If you randomly pick one of the three coins, the probability that it’s the counterfeit is 1 in 3. This is the prior probability of the hypothesis that the coin is counterfeit. Now after picking the coin, you flip it three times and observe that it lands heads each time. Seeing this new evidence that your chosen coin has landed heads three times in a row, you want to know the revised posterior probability that it is the counterfeit. The answer to this question, found using Bayes’s theorem (calculation mercifully omitted), is 4 in 5. You thus revise your probability estimate of the coin’s being counterfeit upward from 1 in 3 to 4 in 5.
A serious problem arises, however, when you apply Bayes’s theorem to real life: it’s often unclear what initial probability to assign to a hypothesis. Our intuitions are embedded in countless narratives and arguments, and so new evidence can be filtered and factored into the Bayes probability revision machine in many idiosyncratic and incommensurable ways. The question is how to assign prior probabilities and evaluate evidence in situations much more complicated than the tossing of coins, situations like global warming or autism. In the latter case, for example, some might have assigned a high prior probability to the hypothesis that the thimerosal in vaccines causes autism. But then came new evidence — studies showing that permanent removal of the compound from these vaccines did not lead to a decline in autism. The conditional probability of this evidence given the thimerosal hypothesis is tiny at best and thus a convincing reason to drastically lower the posterior probability of the hypothesis. Of course, people wedded to their priors can always try to rescue them from the evidence by introducing all sorts of dodges. Witness die-hard birthers and truthers, for example.
McGrayne devotes much of her book to Bayes’s theorem’s many remarkable contributions to history: she discusses how it was used to search for nuclear weapons, devise actuarial tables, demonstrate that a document seemingly incriminating Colonel Dreyfus was most likely a forgery, improve low-resolution computer images, judge the authorship of the disputed Federalist papers and determine the false positive rate of mammograms. She also tells the story of Alan Turing and others whose pivotal crypto-analytic work unscrambling German codes may have helped shorten World War II.
Statistics is an imperialist discipline that can be applied to almost any area of science or life, and this litany of applications is intended to be the unifying thread that sews the book into a coherent whole. It does so, but at the cost of giving it a list-like, formulaic feel. More successful are McGrayne’s vivifying sketches of the statisticians who devoted themselves to Bayesian polemics and counterpolemics. As McGrayne amply shows, orthodox Bayesians have long been opposed, sometimes vehemently, by so-called frequentists, who have objected to their tolerance for subjectivity. The nub of the differences between them is that for Bayesians the prior can be a subjective expression of the degree of belief in a hypothesis, even one about a unique event or one that has as yet never occurred. For frequentists the prior must have a more objective foundation; ideally that is the relative frequency of events in repeatable, well-defined experiments. McGrayne’s statisticians exhibit many differences, and she cites the quip that you can nevertheless always tell them apart by their posteriors, a good word on which to end.
John Allen Paulos, a professor of mathematics at Temple University, is the author of several books, including “Innumeracy” and, most recently, “Irreligion.”
Chapter 12 Quality and Productivity in Service Organizations
“No English minister to the United States has ever been so popular: and the mediocrity of his talents has been one of the principal causes of his success.” John Quincy Adams
約翰·昆西·亞當斯(John Quincy Adams,1767年7月11日-1848年2月23日),美國第六任總統(1825年-1829年)。
他是第二任總統約翰·亞當斯及第一夫人愛比蓋爾·亞當斯的長子。 在詹姆斯·門羅時期擔任國務卿,並發展「門羅主義」。他是美國歷史上第一位繼其父親之後成為總統的總統,也是唯一一位當選美國眾議院議員的卸任總統。
「十二位現代總統中有四位脫穎而出,他們沒有惱人的情感擾動問題:艾森豪,福特,老布希和小布希。其他四人的特點是有情感流可未明顯地損害其領導力:小羅斯福,杜魯門,甘迺迪和雷根。剩下四位,詹森,尼克森,卡特,克林頓等都有情感上障礙。堅硬如維蘇威火山石的詹森( LBJ) ,他的情緒起落之大足以必須上醫院找醫生診療。卡特的剛硬對他在白宮的表現是一個重大障礙。衝動控制上有缺陷的克林頓所導至的行動,讓他後來遭到彈劾。」
現在先介紹兩位學者的研究。首先是上文的引文的作者弗雷德‧格林斯坦(Fred I. Greenstein) 。他是美國普林斯頓大學的榮譽教授。他的著作包括 《兒童與政治》Children and Politics (1965), 《個性與政治》Personality and Politics (1969), 《深藏不露宿的總統:艾森豪作為一領導》The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1982), 《總統們如何考驗現實》How Presidents Test Reality (1989, with John P. Burke), 《總統的差異特色:從小羅斯福到歐巴桑馬的領導風格》The Presidential Difference: Leadership Style from FDR to Barack Obama (2009), and 《發明總統職務:從喬治華盛頓到安德魯傑克遜》Inventing the Job of President: Leadership Style from George Washington to Andrew Jackson (2009).等等。
本章將會翻譯《總統的差異特色:從小羅斯福到布希總統的領導風格》摘要 (The Presidential Difference: Leadership Style from FDR to George W. Bush. 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004. pp. 217-223.
摘自鍾漢清著 領導與學習:
1954年3月17日 胡適在台北演講《美國的民主政治》。說他親歷6次美國總統大選 (1912-54 共11次大選) ,…… 第6次便是艾森豪的當選。……1952的大選,艾森豪勝利決定後,斯蒂文生Adlai E Stevenson (. 1900-1965)說:「選舉前我們彼此拼命攻擊,選舉決定後,我們彼此真誠合作。」(胡頌平《胡適之先生年譜長編初稿‧第七冊》台北:聯經,1984,頁2399。) 案:本章多引過《史蒂文生 演講選》 (Looking outward ) 陳若桓譯,香港:今日世界,1967。
美國總統大選多此種君子之爭,如2000年的民主黨總統候選人高爾 Gore 讓小布希。
到了1960年11月4日,胡適接受中廣公司訪問他的親歷7次美國總統大選。談完之後,王大空問他:「美國歷任總統那五位最偉大?」胡適答:「華盛頓、傑弗遜、林肯、威爾遜、(小)羅斯福。」(胡頌平《胡適之先生年譜長編初稿‧第九冊》台北:聯經,1984,頁3356。)
讀者可以從本章中了解各人對「美國歷任總統那五位最偉大?」的認知,是各有喜好的,而這更反映出個人的知識和經驗背景的差異…..不過,我們尊敬一些專家和胡適之先生等人的看法…….
-----《領導力與組織學習:績效,改善與開創》
元設對話:為什麼萬事都要有綱要? Metalogue: Why do things have outlines?'
Daughter: What did you mean by a conversation having an outline? Has this conversation had an outline? 女兒:你說的「每番談話都有一大綱」,意什麼思呢?
Father: Oh, surely, yes. But we cannot see it yet because the conversation isn't finished. You cannot ever see it while you're in the middle of it. Because if you could see it, you would be predictable - like the machine. And I would be predictable - and the two of us together would be predictable - 父親:沒錯,肯定有的。不過我們這番談話還沒完結,
Daughter: But I don't understand. You say it is important to be clear about things. And you get angry about people who blur the outlines. And yet we think its better to be unpredictable and not to be like a machine. And you say that we cannot see the outlines of our conversation till it's over. Then it doesn't matter whether we're clear or not. Because we cannot do anything about it then. 女兒:不過我還是不了解。你說凡事都要清楚,這是重要的。
Father: Yes, I know - and I don't understand it myself ….But anyway, who wants to do anything about it. 父親:沒錯,這我知道 -- 而我自己本身也不了解……話又說回來,對這又怎樣呢?
(Gregory Bateson 著《邁向心靈的生態學》( Steps to an Ecology of Mind). New York:管理書籍的重要與其限制
「對我們而言,組織學習領域中最有用的觀念是建基於已發展了50年的管理理論……」 (Arthur K. Yeung 等人合著《組織學習能力》( Organizational Learning Capability)台北:聯經,2001,頁27)
本書重視原典的閱讀和學習,所以談論各著名作者的思想時,都會選些他/她的代表文章供參考。我們討論的是20世紀的一些重要的,或有影響力的管理書籍,多少希望帶你入門,供你修行的參考。
『知識的選擇、組織和陳述,並不是中立和無價值觀念的過程。相反地,它是一個世界觀的表現,由經濟和社會及政治制度所支持。』(《知識社會史》(The Social History of Knowledge; From Gutenberg to Diderot by Peter Berg ,台北:麥田,2003,頁289。)
「對於你,一本書的唯一價值,在於你覺得它有什麼意思。」 (毛姆 (W. S. Maugham,1874-1965) —其實應該參考他《總結》(Summing Up) 中介紹英國文學的文章,雖然有點大而化之、流於主觀,但畢竟也近一家之言。
胡適在1955年元旦《日記》記他讀《鄭板橋全集》 (1892年上海積山書局) :
…..鄭燮(1693-1765)是個絕頂聰明,又肯下功夫,故他的寫字、作畫、作詩,都能有獨立的成就。
他《題畫》有一條論徐文長畫《雪竹》的法子,他論云:
「……殊不知「寫意」二字誤多少事!欺人,瞞自己,再不求進,皆坐此病。必極工而後能寫意,非不工而遂能寫意也。」
《家書》說;「總是讀書要有特識。依樣葫蘆,無有是處。而特識又不外乎至情至理。歪扭亂竄,無有是處。
豎儒之言,必不可聽。學者自出眼孔,自豎脊骨讀書可爾。」
「我們的任務是交貨」("We live to deliver." ) 這是聯邦快遞(FedEx) 公司在CNN 等的廣告用語。該公司 約在1970年代早期成立。約1985 時它在台灣美商很風行。其創辦人、董事長 Frederick Smith說過一句話,我認為很有真知卓見。他說管理書籍該研讀,不過值得細讀的,就是屈指可數那幾本。
On leadership in an Organization
A leader has a responsibility to help people do a better job, to improve quality and output, and to bring pride of workmanship to people. A leader knows the work he supervises, and understands the problems that surface. He seeks knowledge for personal improvement and to help others. He knows how to work on a system to improve it, to clarify methods, and distinguish between common and special causes of variation in a process. He works to accomplish greater consistency of performance within the system. He establishes teams to work for improvement of quality.
A leader has particular obligations to employees. He spends time with people, uses their abilities, makes them feel secure and respected. He knows he has but one chance to see that workers are trained properly. He removes barriers between staff areas and instills pride of workmanship. He works with employees to understand and improve processes, and does not penalize people for performance they cannot govern. Leadership transforms organizations.
Joyce Nilsson Orsini, PhD
Best wishes,
Joyce